Secondary School Expansion and Gender Parity in Indonesia 2000 to 2024
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.65310/1ye9em77Keywords:
educational inequality, gender parity, Indonesia, secondary education, time series.Abstract
Indonesia experienced substantial secondary-school expansion between 2000 and 2024, but national participation parity does not establish equality in educational attainment. This study examined changes in female and male gross secondary enrolment and the temporal pattern of gender differences using a descriptive longitudinal analysis of 25 annual national observations from the World Development Indicators. Enrolment levels, endpoint changes, female-minus-male percentage-point gaps, female-to-male ratios, and descriptive Theil–Sen slopes were calculated. Female gross enrolment increased from 55.13% to 98.67% (43.54 percentage points), while male enrolment increased from 56.05% to 99.00% (42.95 points). The female-to-male ratio shifted from 0.984 to 0.997. Female gross enrolment exceeded male enrolment in 20 of 25 years; the largest female advantage was 2.74 points in 2023, whereas the largest male advantage was 2.05 points in 2013. Theil–Sen slopes were 2.07 and 2.04 points annually for females and males, respectively. These results identify substantial expansion for both sexes alongside reversible annual differences rather than uninterrupted gender convergence. National gross enrolment cannot establish age-appropriate attendance, completion, learning outcomes, or causal policy effects. The aggregate series also cannot reveal disparities across regions, household income groups, or learner characteristics. Educational equity assessment requires complementary disaggregated indicators of participation, retention, and achievement.
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Copyright (c) 2026 YunHaoChuang, Syimir Asyraaf Bin Eddie Halim, Ali Anhar Syi’bul Huda, Ismaul Fitroh, Sarbiland Durrani (Author)
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